Table 1 Summary of the effects of oestrogen and testosterone on various organs

Heart

• Improved left ventricular function

• Improved cardiac output

• Enhanced p38MAPK, Akt, eNOS and HSP expression

• Reduction in IL-6, NFκB and TNF-α

[70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79]

• Depressed myocardial function

• Suppression of Akt anti-apoptotic pathways

• Reduced expression of Bcl-2

• Chronic administration improves function and reduces tissue damage

[80,81,82]

Lungs

• Decreased lung congestion, oedema and inflammation

• Decreased emphysematous changes

• Enhanced eNOS/PKG expression

• Decreased KDC, MIF, TLR-4 and ERK expression

• Reduction in IL-6, TNF-α, ICAM-1, CINC-1 and MIP-2

[87, 105,106,107,108,109,110, 159]

• Increased lung permeability and inflammation

• Increased nitric oxide levels

[45]

Liver

• Reduction in liver congestion, portal inflammation and focal necrosis

• Enhanced Kupffer cell function

• Reduction in IL-6, TNF-α, MIP-1α and MIP-2

• Increased expression of Bcl-2

• Reduced ET-1 response

[68, 71, 87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96]

• Reduced hepatic microvascular blood flow

• Diminished hepatocellular function

[97]

Spleen

• Stimulation of splenocyte proliferation

• Increased IL-2 and IL-3

• Improved splenic macrophage and T lymphocyte function

• Prevented apoptosis of splenic dendritic cells

• Improved splenic dendritic cell function

• Enhanced MHC II expression

[52, 55,56,57,58,59,60]

• Reduces MHC II expression

• Depressed cell-mediated immune response

[56]

Intestines

• Reduced ET-1 response

• Enhanced p38MAPK and Akt expression

• Reduction in MPO, ICAM-1, CINC-1, CINC-3, MIP-2 and IL-6

[101,102,103,104]

• Enhances local pro-inflammatory response

[45, 97, 98]

Brain/Nerves

• Reduced iNOS expression

• Reduction in hypothalamic TNF-α

• Preservation of blood brain barrier integrity

• Inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9

[113,114,115,116,117]

• Inhibition of caspase-3, MPO and XO activity

• Reduction in malondialdehyde

• Increased catalase levels

• Maintains cellular and structural integrity

• Preserves neural function

[118,119,120]

Kidneys

• Enhanced Akt and eNOS expression

• Reduction in neutrophil infiltration

[127, 128]

• Reduced NOS, Akt and ERK expression

• Low doses: increased IL-10 and reduction in T cell infiltration

[125, 126]