Biofilm delays wound healing: A review of the evidence

Clinical evidence

In a series of case studies, Hurlow (2009 and 2012) described management of wound biofilm using carefully selected combinations of debridement, antimicrobials and dressing technologies [Table 2].[13,23] Figure 1 shows an example of an infected traumatic wound undergoing curettage to debride biofilm that appeared to be impeding granulation tissue formation. Careful management of infection, exudate and underlying pathophysiologies were complemented by this approach.[23] Hurlow’s work also highlighted key differences between the origins, composition and behavior of slough and biofilm. Slough is dead or devitalized proteinaceous host tissue, but contiguous with underlying viable tissue.[13] On the other hand, biofilm is viable, bacteria-derived tissue, comprised of bacteria in a matrix of EPS which is thought to be primarily polysaccharide-based.[28] This distinction is exemplified in Figure 2 which shows a dehisced surgical wound with suggestive biofilm in addition to peripheral slough. The claim that biofilm is sometimes visible in wounds with the naked eye[23] has initiated lively debate amongst the global wound care community.[29] A shiny, translucent, slimy layer in the wound bed had already been used as a clinical sign of biofilm, especially if it returned quickly after sharp debridement.[30] It has recently been argued that there is no conclusive in vivo proof that biofilm exists in wounds perse⁺; however, the authors highlight the need for biofilm detection technology and support biofilm-based wound care (BBWC).[31]

In recent years, Wolcott and colleagues have embarked on a series of clinical investigations which have advanced our understanding of the characterization, behavior and impact of biofilm in chronic and acute wounds [Table 2].[12,24–27]

BBWC is an algorithm, including debridement, antimicrobial dressings, anti-biofilm agents and antibiotics, used to most efficiently suppress wound biofilm and encourage healing. In a retrospective clinical study, the improved level of healing achieved using BBWC was found to be statistically significant.[12] The value of regular debridement was demonstrated in a series of scientific, animal and clinical analyses, which showed that debridement opens up a therapeutic window where bacteria are more susceptible to antimicrobial agents,[32] so is key to maintaining a healthy wound bed.[33] A recent retrospective study examined a group of 97 patients with various wounds that received BBWC in conjunction with cell-based therapy. Compared to previous studies which did not use BBWC, these bespoke protocols of care were shown to result in a statistically significant improvement in wound healing following cell-based therapy[27] Figure 3 shows an example of how debridement in conjunction with a silver carboxymethyl cellulose dressing was used to successfully transform a biofilm-colonized dehisced incision [Figure 3a] to a healing wound [Figure 3b].

These clinical experiences, case studies and retrospective studies are of great value as we begin to understand the effect of biofilm on wound healing. However, in the absence of a non-invasive, point-of-care biofilm detection method, it is challenging to use human patients to conduct randomized or prospective trials on the subject. It is also unethical to consider deliberate establishment of biofilm in human patients. Therefore, the use of animal models is justifiable in investigating this significant human health problem. Moreover, certain animal wound models are relevant to human wound healing in terms of host response such as the production of macrophages, neutrophils, inflammatory enzymes and keratinocytes. Porcine, murine and rabbit ear wound models are all recognized for their value in better understanding human wound pathophysiology and healing.

Animal evidence

Studies using the porcine acute wound model suggested that biofilm physically impairs the immune responses associated with healing [Table 3].[34,35] The authors described how continuous antimicrobial treatment was needed to control biofilm-colonized wounds, and that debridement was a critical step to reduce bioburden before therapeutics are applied,[49] as has been described clinically[32,33] A porcine model has demonstrated that encouraging the establishment and resilience of wound biofilm exacerbates delayed healing [Table 3].[36] Most recently, the interaction between S. aureus and P. aeruginosa in biofilms has been demonstrated in the porcine model where healing was significantly delayed [Table 3].[37] Murine models have been used to demonstrate the importance of P. aeruginosa biofilm-forming virulence factors,[38] and that EPS protects bacteria from antibiotics and host defenses [Table 3].[39] The diabetic mouse chronic wound model has shown that P. aeruginosa biofilm significantly delayed healing by two to four weeks without impairing the general health of the subject [Table 3].[40,41] Treating diabetic mice with insulin did not prevent delayed healing, actually promoting P. aeruginosa biofilm [Table 3],[42] which has also been shown to be resistant to undiluted sodium hypochlorite.[32] Polymicrobial biofilm comprised of four species delayed murine wound closure significantly more than single-species biofilm over 12 days [Table 3].[43]

The Northwestern University group in Chicago has conducted a series of in vivo studies in recent years, expanding our understanding of the effect of biofilm on wound healing [Table 3]. Visible biofilm was observed to significantly delay closure of the epithelial gap in a murine splinted wound model [Table 3],[44] before an established, reproducible and Food & Drug Administration (FDA)-recognized rabbit dermal ulcer model of wound healing was adopted.[50] This model utilizes full-thickness punch wounds through to the cartilage of rabbit ears, closely representing the dermal damage observed in human chronic wounds. Biofilms of S. aureus[22] and P. aeruginosa[45] significantly delayed healing in terms of epithelialization and granulation tissue formation, with biofilm-colonized wounds expressing significantly lower levels of inflammatory markers than clinically infected wounds [Table 3]. Combinations of treatments in an anti-biofilm protocol of care were also shown to be more effective at encouraging wound healing than individual treatments [Table 3].[45] Biofilms of the opportunistic pathogen, Klebsiella pneumoniae, associated with burn and war wounds, were shown to impair healing of ischemic rabbit ear wounds,[46] but to a lesser extent than P. aeruginosa or S. aureus [Table 3].[47] A further study demonstrated synergy between different species in biofilm, further delaying wound healing compared to single-species biofilm [Table 3],[48] as has been demonstrated in murine models.[43]

Despite the limitations of the rabbit ear wound healing model (e.g. an acute wound modeling a human chronic wound), its advantages over other animal models are clear and have recently been the subject of a review[51] As a highly controlled in vivo wound biofilm model, the rabbit ear model is also useful for assessing new anti-biofilm or antimicrobial technologies.[52,53]

Debridement

Physical debridement of foreign material is clearly the simplest, and currently the most effective method to remove these impediments to healing. Whilst clinicians have long appreciated that debridement of slough can encourage healing, the evidence suggests that this process also removes bacteria, in the form of contaminated or colonized slough, as well as biofilm. Debridement techniques range from specialist surgical and sharp debridement, gentler mechanical debridement with curettes, fabric pads, lavage or ultrasound, to autolytic debridement with moisture-retentive dressings.[55] There may also be a place for chemical debridement using rinse solutions or gels containing antiseptics such as sodium hypochlorite or hypochlorous acid.[56,57] Whichever method is utilized, the main clinical and in vivo observations are that biofilm re-forms rapidly-certainly daily, and likely within hours,[58] so regular debridement is key.[32,33] In addition, whereas slough may be contiguous with healthier underlying host tissue, biofilm may be more surface-associated so may respond well to gentler methods of debridement such as curettage, fabric pads or skin-safe chemical rinses. Moreover, although the aim of debridement is to remove devitalized tissue and ‘beat back’ biofilm to stop it re-forming,[32,33] it will only be effective if followed up with appropriate antimicrobials and wound management products.

Topical antimicrobials

The abundance of currently-available antimicrobial agents (e.g. antibiotics, cleansers, gels, dressings) may be confusing to healthcare professionals. Antibiotics should be used responsibly and only when clinical infection is suspected or confirmed by clinical and microbiological assessment. Effective debridement of biofilm removes some of the protection bacteria are offered by EPS, forcing the remaining bacteria to revert to a more metabolically active form, so antibiotics (which are designed to kill planktonic bacteria), and topical antiseptics such as silver, iodine and polyhexamethylene biguanide (PHMB), are made more effective.[32,33] Perhaps as important as the antiseptic selected is the delivery vehicle used, which must interact optimally with the wound microenvironment. For example, in an exuding wound with suspected biofilm, a highly-absorbent antiseptic dressing should be used after effective debridement-the use of antiseptic gauze or mesh would be inappropriate, due to their poor exudate management capabilities. Prudent combinations of debridement, antimicrobials and wound management products is currently the best available protocol of care for wounds with suspected biofilm or infection.[12] However, the anti-biofilm efficacy of most currently available topical antimicrobial products is limited.

Anti-biofilm agents

As we begin to appreciate the source (bacterial), composition (EPS or ‘slime’) and behavior (re-forms quickly) of wound biofilm, opportunities to improve on current wound care are presented. For example, in the future it may be possible to formulate wound care products, such as debridement pads, rinses or dressings, with agents that penetrate through biofilm EPS, thus exposing the bacteria and increasing their susceptibility to antimicrobials. Detergent-type agents could help to remove biofilm from the wound bed, or chemicals could be used that weaken the matrix to collapse biofilms which could then be mopped up by absorbent dressings. A number of such potential anti-biofilm agents have been proposed, such as xylitol, lactoferrin and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA),[12] but convincing clinical or in vivo evidence for their efficacy is lacking. A key challenge to science and industry is to better understand the composition of wound biofilm in terms of polysaccharide, protein, extracellular DNA and ions, in order to formulate anti-biofilm technologies. At least daily, we all use combinations of debridement, detergents and antimicrobials to manage oral plaque biofilm and maintain oral hygeine,[59] and this multi-modal approach is most likely how wound biofilm can be effectively managed to encourage wound healing.

Biofilm detection

The current accepted gold standard for biofilm detection in wounds is by microscopic examination using expensive and specialized techniques such as confocal microscopy or electronic microscopy. Although in some instances, biofilm may be visible to the trained clinical eye,[13,23,30] the need for wound biofilm detection techniques for use at the point-of-care is clear.[31,54,60] Biofilm detection would enable more effective wound bed preparation techniques if the clinician could visualize if and where biofilm is present in the wound, perhaps by staining or tagging biofilm components to render them visible.[60] This would also enable the most appropriate and effective selection of antimicrobials and dressings, with associated cost savings, which are becoming increasingly important in global healthcare.